.

Note to Readers

The list of all my blogs has been compiled and can be seen at the link below. With a large number of blogs on the website, it is at times difficult to locate specific blogs.

List of My Photo-Blogs/Travelogues

.

Introduction

.

.

Andhra Pradesh, home to the Godavari River, offers rich cultural experiences and ancient Hindu temples. The region showcases diverse temple architecture, including both Nagara and Dravidian styles. Notable sites include the Pañcarāma Kṣetras, various deities, and unique village shrines. Kosta (coastal) Andhra has many temples, but it doesn’t promote its history as effectively as Tamil Nadu, leading to less recognition. Historically, the coastal region flourished under the Maurya Empire, followed by the Satavahana Dynasty. Prominent sites such as Dhanyakataka-Amaravati played a pivotal role in the trade networks of ancient India. The Eastern Chalukyas greatly impacted temple architecture, as shown by the six temples located in Bikkavolu. Significant temples include the Sri Golingeswara Swami Temple, noted for its detailed carvings and spiritual importance. Festivals like Subramanyeswara Swamy Shashti and Vinayaka Chaviti are celebrated with enthusiasm. Gollala Mamidada’s Sri Suryanarayana Swami Temple attracts pilgrims with its unique architecture and rich traditions.

.

.

Andhra Pradesh provides a rich cultural experience, with the Godavari River—often called the Ganga of the South—flowing into the sea. This creates stunning marine environments where land and water coexist. Some of the most important centers of Hindu learning exist in Andhra. The region boasts beautiful coastal cities, diverse cuisine, and a vibrant landscape of rice fields, coconut groves, and rivers.

.

.

Andhra Pradesh illustrates the diverse styles of temple building in the Indian subcontinent. The Chalukyan, Dravidian, Nagara, and Odissan idioms are seen in the construction of temples in this state. The Nagara-style temples are in the north, and the Dravida-style temples are in the center and south. There are also Śivālayas deep in mountaintop jungles, as well as in metropolitan cities.

Andhra features the famous Pañcarāma Kṣetras on its coast, alongside temples for other avatars like Śrī Narasiṃha, Śrī Kūrma, and Śrī Varāha. Andhra also has temples dedicated to the five great deities of Pañcāyatana worship in Bhārata: Śiva, Viṣhṇu, Gaṇapati, Sūrya, and Śakti. Yet, in the same vein, we see temples dedicated to the local deities of its villages and towns.

The temples in the region did not escape plunder from Mughal attacks. These commenced with the attacks by the Delhi Sultanate and subsequent dynasties like the Musunuri Nayaks of South India. As such, most temples were damaged. Efforts have been made to restore the broken and disfigured sculptures, but often these attempts appear amateurish.

.

.

Though the region’s geography is steeped in spirituality and ancient traditions, not much is known about these Kṣetras in other parts of Bhārata—except probably for Tirupati. Coastal Andhra Pradesh has many ancient temples, but they haven’t received as much attention as those in Tamil Nadu. This is probably due to the reasons mentioned below:

• Tamil Nadu has a rich history, featuring great empires like the Cholas and Pallavas, famous for their remarkable temple architecture. This narrative has been successfully promoted over time, shaping the region’s image as a place of beautiful temples. Coastal Andhra Pradesh had powerful kingdoms like the Satavahanas, Kakatiyas, and Eastern Ganga Dynasty, but it did not maintain a consistent historical narrative building and promotion.
• Coastal Andhra temples are architecturally significant, but they lack the distinct style of Tamil Nadu’s Dravidian architecture. The Dravidian style, with its towering gopurams and intricate carvings, has become iconic and easily associated with South Indian temples. Coastal Andhra’s architectural styles, while unique, have not achieved the same level of recognition.
• Tamil Nadu has been very successful in marketing its temples as major tourist attractions. They are well-maintained, easily accessible, and have good infrastructure for visitors. Coastal Andhra Pradesh has well-maintained temples but lacks effective marketing and tourism development for its religious sites.
• Tamil Nadu’s temple towns are better connected by road and rail, making them easily accessible to tourists. Some ancient temples in coastal Andhra Pradesh are in remote areas, making them less accessible.

.

.

I embarked on this yatra with a Brhat group as a part of their Anvesi program. Most major temples have strict rules to restrict photography inside the shrines and prohibit carrying any bags/mobiles inside. The journey was performed during the monsoon season, and that made it very pleasant. However, it is not the best season for photography or the equipment! That was a bit of a dampener.

.

History

.

The coastal region of Andhra emerged as a prominent political power during the Maurya Empire. Greek ambassador Megasthenes (c. 310 BCE) noted that Andhra was a thriving region under the Satavahanas before the Common Era. The Satavahana dynasty dominated the Deccan Plateau from the 1^st century BCE to the 3^rd century CE. It had trade relations with the Roman Empire. The Satavahana dynasty established Dhanyakataka-Amaravati as their capital. According to historians, it might have been the most prosperous city in India in the 2^nd century CE. 

.

Sculptures on the walls of the 9^th century Someshwara Temple at Mukhlingeshwar built by the Eastern Ganga dynasty

.

Coastal Andhra was subsequently governed by the Eastern Chalukya dynasty between the 7^th and 12^th centuries CE, followed by successive rule under the Chola, Kakatiya, and Vijayanagara empires. 11^th century inscriptions show that Coastal Andhra’s borders extended from the Mahendragiri mountains in north-eastern Orissa to the Kalahasti Temple in Tirupati and the Srisailam Temple in Nandyal.

The Eastern Chalukyas played a key role in the development of the temples in East Godavari. The Eastern Chalukyas were known for their impressive temples and distinctive Dravidian art and architecture. Bikkavolu, known for its significant Eastern Chalukya temples, exemplifies this architectural style. Bikkavolu, formerly called Birudankinavolu, is named after its ruler, King Gunaga Vijayaditya III of the Turupu Chalukya dynasty. During their reign, these temples received tremendous royal patronage.

.

.

The Eastern Chalukyas, or Vengi Chalukyas, ruled the Andhra region for about 450 years from 624 to 1076 CE. At its height, the Kingdom of Vengi stretched from the Mahendra Mountains in Kalinga to the Maneru River in Nellore, with its western border mostly at the Eastern Ghats.

The dynasty had about 30 kings, beginning with King Kubja Vishnuvardhana (624–642 CE) and ending with Vijayaditya VII (1068–1076 CE). The kings ruled from Pishtapura, then Vengi, and finally Rajamahendri (Rajahmundry). Their history is largely a record of succession disputes. The Rashtrakutas and Chalukyas from the west, and later the Cholas from the south, occasionally intervened in these disputes. Of the kings, Narendra Mrigaraja Vijayaditya (805–846 CE), Gunaga Vijayaditya (848–891 CE), Chalukya Bhima I (892–922 CE), Danarnava (971–973 CE), Ammaraja II (945–970 CE), and Rajaraja Narendra (1019–1060 CE) were the greatest patrons of art & architecture and Telugu literature.

.

.

Rajaraja Narendra is said to have laid the foundation of the new city called Rajamahendravaram (Rajahmundry) after his name. Nanayya, the court poet of King Rajaraja Narendra, translated the Sanskrit Mahabharata into the Andhra Mahabharata, a pivotal event in Telugu literature.

.

Location of the temples visited

.

The other dynasty that profoundly impacted the region was the Eastern Ganga dynasty. This large Hindu dynasty ruled from Kalinga from the 5^th century to the mid-20^th century. The dynasty ruled over modern Odisha, much of north Andhra Pradesh, and parts of Chhattisgarh. The early rulers of the dynasty initially governed from Dantapuram, but later, the capital was moved to Kalinganagara, now known as Mukhalingam in Andhra Pradesh. They are best known for building the famous Jagannath Temple in Puri, the Konark Sun Temple in Odisha, and the Madhukeshwara Temple in Mukhalingam, as well as the Varaha Narasimha Temple in Simhachalam, now part of Andhra Pradesh. The rulers of the Eastern Ganga dynasty defended their kingdom from the constant attacks of the Muslim invaders.  

.

Shri Bhimeswara Swamy Temple, Draksharamam 

.

.

Draksharamam or Daksharamam is one of the Pancharama Kshetras in Andhra Pradesh, one of the Trilinga Kshetras in Telugu-speaking states, and is the 12^th of the 18 Shakti Peeth temples in India. It is famous as both a Shiva Kshetra and a Shakti Kshetra. Lord Bheemeswara Swamy and Manikyamba are the main deities here. This place is also called Dakshin Kashi. Owing to its religious significance, it is among the most frequented temples in South India. 

.

.

The town was formerly known as Daṣkatapovana and Daṣkavāṭika. This is the place where Daksha, head of all Prajapatis, did a yagna called Nirīśvara yāga or Nirīśvara yajña. This place’s present name is a compound of Daṣka and Ārāma which means “Abode of Daksha”. This place was also referred to as Daṣkavāṭika by Adi Shankara in maha shakti peetha sloka at Māṇikye Dakṣa vāṭika, which points to “Maanikyamba Devi of Draksharama”. The place where Daksha performed Nirīśvara yajña is still visited by pilgrims here.

.

.

Inscriptions in the temple reveal that it was built between the 9^th and 10^th centuries CE by the Eastern Chalukyan king, Bhima. The big Mandapam of the temple was built by Ganga Mahadevi, daughter-in-law of Eastern Ganga Dynasty king Narasingha Deva I of Odisha. Architecturally and sculpturally, the temple reflects a blend of Chalukyan and Chola styles.

.

.

The presiding deities are Bhimeswara Swamy (Shiva) and Manikyamba Devi (Parvati Devi). The Manikyamaba Devi temple is situated in the inner circle of Bhimeswara Swamy temple.

.

Details of sculptures on the prakara walls, which include Shiva performing the tandava and other figures/motifs

.

As per the inscription at Pithapuram, the temple of Kumaram Chalukya Bhimesvara was built by Chalukya Bhima-I, the famous Eastern Chalukya king, towards the end of the 9^th century CE. The presiding deity Shiva, in the form of tall Sivalinga, was named after the monarch Chalukya Bhimesvara. The inscription mentions that Chalukya Bhima was the son of Vikramaditya, who had won 360 battles and ruled the country for thirty years. The temple is similar in architecture to the Bhimesvara temple at Samalkot. Two prakara walls, built of dressed sandstone, surround the temple.

.

.

After the death of Sati, the 12^th part of her body i.e. her left cheek fell here which is now known in the form of Goddess Manikyamba.

.

Itihāsa

.

.

Daksha Prajapati, father of Parvati, arranged a yagna but did not invite Shiva and Sati. Nonetheless, Sati attended the yagna against Shiva’s wishes and was humiliated by her father. In her despair, she sacrificed her life by jumping into the yagna fire. This enraged Shiva, leading him to create Veerabhadra from his hair to destroy the yagna. Afterward, Shiva performed the rudra tandava, carrying Sati’s corpse in his fury.

.

.

Shiva’s anger threatened the equilibrium of the universe, prompting Vishnu to use his disc to cut Sati Devi’s body into 18 pieces to pacify Shiva. The locations where Sati Devi’s body parts fell are known as Shakthi Peetas, the sacred sites of Goddesses. One of these is at Draksharamam, where she is called Manikyamba.

.

.

The portion of Sati Devi that exists in the Daksaramam temple is believed to be installed by Shiva. About 1200 years ago, Adi Shankaracharya visited this temple and installed a powerful Sri Chakra at the shrine of the Devi.

.

.

Near the Draksharamam Temple, we can still see the Homa Kunda of Daksha Prajapati, where Sati Devi left her body. Now, the homa kunda has become a small tank. A murti of Sati has been enshrined in the center, and some small temples are adjacent to the homa kunda.

.

.

Another legend says that the demon Tarakasura, after doing severe penance obtained a boon of immortality from Shiva with his Atma Linga. Tarakasura then started committing atrocities on the devas. Indra sought Vishnu’s counsel, and on his advice, the Devas performed Parvathi’s marriage with Shiva, and Shanmukha (also known as Murugan or Kartikeya) was born, who would kill Tarakasura. 

.

.

Shanmukha in a battle against Tarakasura destroyed the Atma Linga around Tarakasura’s neck and killed the demon.

The pieces of the Atma Linga fell at five holy places in Andhra Pradesh, which were popularly known as ‘Pancharamams’. The first one is Amareshwara in Amaravathi, installed by Indra; the second one is Someswara in Bheemavaram installed by Chandra; the third is Ksheera Ramalingeswara in Palakollu installed by Rama; the fourth is Kumara Rama Bheemeswara in Samrlakota installed by Shanmukha and the fifth one is Bheemeswara who had appeared himself in Drakshramam.

.

.

The sages requested River Godavari to sanctify the piece fallen in Drakshramam, but Godavari had responded late, and hence Shiva emerged himself in Draksharamam. River Godavari came here at the request of the Saptarshis and hence it is also called Saptha Godavari, which exists on the east of the temple as a Pushkarini.

.

Description

.

The temple is a 2-storied complex and looks like a fort. It has two Prakarams (paths). The outer Prakaramhas four entrances in the four cardinal directions with beautifully carved gopurams. The four gopuraentrances have Ardha mandapas on either side. The inner enclosure wall is partitioned horizontally into two sections, which are separated by a cornice and have a two-storeyed pillared mandapa running throughout the inner side. Each of the entrances is known by four different forms of the Goddess, i.e. Gogulamma, Nookambika, Moodhambike, Ghattambike. Bheemeswara Swamy is the main deity, present in the form of a tall Shiva Lingam.

.

.

The Shiva Lingam is nearly 9 ft in height. A flight of steps leads one to the upper level of the Sanctum where one can see the upper part of Bheemeswara Swamy. The specialty of the Shiva Lingam is that the early morning sunlight falls on it. The Shiva linga is of sphatik. There are black stripes on the upper part. These are said to be the markings of the tiger skin worn by Shiva when he was in disguise as a hunter when he fought with Arjuna.

.

.

Manikyamba Devi’s shrine is located at the rear of the temple at the left corner. The Goddess’s face is facing left, signifying her as Vamachara Devatha.

Vishnu’s shrine is located at the entrance of the main temple. He is the Kshetrapalaka of Draksharamam. Vishnu is accompanied by his consort, Lakshmi Devi.

.

.

There are other small shrines inside the main temple premises. To name a few, there are the Praakara Bhairavudu, Viroopa, Natarajeshwar, Vaamana, Visheshwara, Dancing Ganapathi, Dundhi Ganapathi, Kanakadurga and Annapurna, and the Kashi Vishweshwara Swamy temple, which faces south, is on the right side of the Bheemeshwara Swamy temple.

The temple complex extends over an area of over 12 acres. A magnificent dancing Ganapati welcomes visitors at the entrance, and the trunk of Ganesh is turned to the right, which is a unique feature.

.

.

For performing puja (Abhisheka), water from Sapta (seven) Godavari Kundam (pond) is used as it is considered sacred.

.

.

Festivals

.

The main festival is the Maha Shivaratri in February/March. At the same time, Sri Swamivari Kalyanam (marriage ceremony) is held on Bhishma Ekadasi.

Every year in October, Navaratri is celebrated, and in December, the birth anniversary of the Lord is celebrated as the Shasti Festival.

.

.

East Godavari District

.

The culture of the East Godavari district is rich in tradition and reflects the true culture of Andhra Pradesh. It is known for Veda-pundits, the Godavari River, and the hospitality of its people.

.

Bikkavolu

.

Bikkavolu is located in the East Godavari district between Rajahmundry and Samalkot. This site is home to six remarkable temples from the Eastern Chalukya era. Bikkavolu, formerly known as Birudankinavolu, was named after King Gunaga Vijayaditya III of the Turupu Chalukya dynasty, which ruled from 849 to 892 CE. Near the town, there are three temples, a monolithic Ganesh statue, and three active Siva temples in the open fields. The three temples on the outskirts share similar architectural features, while the Sri Chandrasekhara Swamy Vari Temple and the Sri Raja Rajeswari Vari Temple are renowned for their unique sculpting style, the Silpakala nypunyam.

.

.

.

Sri Golingeswara Swami Vari Temple, Bikkavolu

.

.

The Golingeswara shrine features rich iconography, a beautiful lingam, and inscriptions on the door jambs. The top view of the vimana reminds me of similar Odissan figures and those of Khajuraho.

.

.

Located at Bikkavolu, East Godavari, the Sri Golingeswara Swamy Temple is a remarkable stone temple dedicated to Shiva. The temple was built by the Eastern Chalukyas in the 9^th-10^th century.

.

Dwarapalakas at the entrance

.

The Sri Golingeswara Swami Temple is a sacred place of worship in the heart of the bustling town. This historic temple, dedicated to Sri Golingeswara Swamy, is renowned for its beautiful architecture and cultural importance. The temple is a spiritual refuge for devotees seeking blessings and comfort, and a pilgrimage site for those wishing to deepen their faith. The peaceful atmosphere and detailed carvings attract visitors, making it a must-see for those interested in history, culture, and spirituality. The Sri Golingeswara Swami Temple embodies devotion and tradition, welcoming everyone to enjoy its beauty and divine atmosphere.

.

Numerous sub-shrines have beautiful murtis: (L) Parvati Devi, and (R) Surya

.

Architecture

.

.

The central shrine of Golingeswara has a wealth of iconographic material, a beautiful linga, and 33 lines sasanam on the door jambs. The temple has a garbhagriha, an antarala, mukhamaṇḍapa, and other mandapas. In the mukhamaṇḍapa of the temple are two exquisite masterpieces of Eastern Chalukya sculpture. One figure represents Siva and Parvati as Alingana Chandrasekhara Murthy, while the other depicts a seated Ganesha. The main entrance faces south and leads to the main shrine. The deity in the sanctum sanctorum is a Shiva Lingam made of black granite. The walls of the sanctum sanctorum are decorated with sculptures and pilasters. The vimana above the garbhagriha consists of a row of pillars and beams that end at its base.

.

Beautiful carvings adorn the shrines in the temple complex

.

Sri Golingeswara Swamy is revered as the principal deity, embodying an incarnation of Lord Shiva. Subramanya Swamy is also located within the temple complex. The vehicle of Subramanya, a peacock, stands in front of the deity.

.

.

Interesting Facts

• In the past, this place was called Birudamkitta Puram. There was supposed to be a big tunnel that connected the Peddapuram fort and this temple.

• Britishers used to call this underground tunnel the Big Hole.

.

.

Sri Rajaraja Temple

.

This is another temple of Shiva in Bikkavolu where He takes the form of Sri Raja Rajeshwara Swamy. There are three niches: one for Ganesha, one for Karthikeya on a peacock, and one for Mahishasuramardini. There is also a beautiful Shiva Lingam with the deity of Sri Rajarajeshwari Devi.

.

Sri Chandrasekhara Swamy

.

In the Sri Chandra Sekhara Swamy Temple, Shiva is depicted as Chandrasekhara Swamy and Parvathi as Balatripurasundari Devi. The temple is fully decorated with beautiful sculptures and carvings on all four sides. The kudu character features a fusion of the Makara element, distinct from those found in Karnataka or Tamil Nadu.

.

Vinayaka Temple – Monolithic Ganesha

.

The large sculpture of Ganesha is situated in an open green field and stands 11 feet tall. It was installed between 849 CE and 892 CE. In the history of Eastern Chalukyan sculptures, this murti is regarded as the largest. Before Ganesh Vijaditya’s reign, the sculpture had one pair of hands, but an additional pair was added during his rule. One side of King Gunaga Vijayaditya’s seal displays a sculpture, while the other features an image of Lakshmi. Currently, it is housed in the Chennai Government Museum. This temple draws a large number of devotees.

.

.

It is another temple featuring a unique doorway that showcases the River Goddesses Ganga and Yamuna on either side. Above it, various motifs and iconography are visible, including images of Vishnu and Surya.

.

Kancana Gudi, Bikkavolu

.

.

A Shiva temple dating back to the era of the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. 

• The Kancana Gudi (Kanchana temple, Kancara Gudi) is located in the eastern part of the Bikkavolu village.
• An exquisitely carved temple in stone, the Kancanagudi shows architectural features more advanced than other Biccavolu temples. This makes it likely that this temple was completed a few decades later in the late 9^th century.
• The temple’s vimana superstructure has a well-preserved tritala design with simpler reliefs, making it one of the best examples among the Bikkavolu temples.
• Featuring a kapotabandha adhistana, this temple exemplifies the exquisite katakavarta kumuda architectural style.
• This temple follows the square and circle principles of temple architecture illustrated in the temple architecture texts. 

.

Veerabhadra Temple, Bikkavolu

.

The Virabhadra Temple (Veerabhadra Gudi) is located to the east of Bikkavolu village. It is a west-facing temple, one originally dedicated to Surya. It has the standard square and circle principle of floor plan and design as found in temple architectural texts.

The temple’s outer walls feature Bhadra images of Vishnu on the south, Brahma on the north, and Surya on the east. The images feature two distinct decoration styles: Vishnu and Surya showcase the Kalinga style from Odisha, while Brahma exemplifies the Chola style from Tamil Nadu. Shilpins (artisans) from these two regions likely collaborated to complete this temple along with a few others in Bikkavolu.

.

.

The vimana of the temple has two intricately carved talas (storeys). These artworks reflect a tradition found in major temples across South Asia and Southeast Asia, featuring Kama scenes (amorous couples), Artha scenes (various professions, including teachers), and Dharma scenes (gods and goddesses).

The Brahmacchanda shikhara of the Virabhadra temple is somewhat damaged. The door jambs of the sanctum are simplistic but include goddesses Ganga and Yamuna at the base.

.

Festivals of Bikkavolu

.

Two major festivals are celebrated with great religious fervor. Subramanyeswara Swamy Shashti is observed yearly during Margashira Sudda Shashti Day in December. Vinayaka Chaviti is celebrated annually during Bhadrapada Shukla Chaviti in September.

.

Sri Suryanarayana Swami Temple, Gollala Mamidada

.

.

Sri Suryanarayana Swami Temple is a Sun temple in Gollala Mamidada village. The temple was established in 1920 by Sri Kovvuri Basivi Reddy, the Zamindar of Gollala Mamidada, on 16 acres of land having grass and coconut palms near the Antharvahini River. 

.

.

Gollala Mamidada in Peddapudi Mandal, East Godavari District, has been a popular pilgrimage destination for a century, located by the Thulya Bhaga (Antharvahini) River. It is one of the famous holy pilgrimage centers of the East Godavari District. In Andhra, Gollala Mamidada is popularly known as “Gopurala Mamidada”. 

.

Architecture & Deities

.

.

The Temple is east-facing, and the Rajagopuram is 3-tiered. In front of the Rajagopuram, there is a large sculpture of Surya Narayana Perumal in a chariot pulled by seven horses, with Surya as the charioteer. There is a Sangu and a Chakkaram on either side of the chariot.  

.

Fine workmanship is the hallmark of this temple

.

The Temple has a compound wall with an iron gate; on either side of it are Garuda and Anjaneya Swamy. The temple threshold features engravings of various deities, with Dvārapālakas positioned on both sides of the entrance. A pair of Ganapathi murtis facing each other can be seen here. At the entrance, you’ll see a Balipeedam, a Dwajasthamba, and a kneeling Garuda sculpture with folded hands facing the sanctum. There is a small mandapam at the entrance. 

.

.

At the threshold of the Moolasthanam, there are a pair of Dwara Balakas on either side. Above the threshold, Sri Surya Narayana Swami is depicted on a horse-drawn chariot. On either side of this glass panel are a Sangu and a Chakaram. In the Sanctum Sanctorum, Lord Surya Narayana Swamy stands in the center, flanked by his consorts, Usha and Chaaya. The Uchavamoorthy murtis, located beneath the main altar, are elegantly positioned in two smaller shrines flanking the presiding deity. The main one houses idols of Lakshmi Narayana Swami and Satya Narayana Swami. Close to this is a Ganapathy murti with a gold kavacham. 

.

.

The outer periphery of the temple has several pillars, which are covered with wallpaper or painted in bright colours. There is a coloured casting of Venkateshwara Perumal with Padmavathi Thayar, which looks resplendent. On the other side, there is a tiled place with an elevated stage where functions are held.

.

.

Devotees take a vow to visit the temple to get their wishes fulfilled. People in this region often make promises in the name of Lord Sri Suryanarayana Swamy Varu. Since 1991, the late founder’s followers have managed the temple under the supervision of the Endowments Department, guided by an Executive Officer.

.

.

The temple was built with funds donated by the founder’s family.

.

.

Kodandarama Temple, Gollala Mamidada

.

.

Kodandarama Temple is located in Gollala Mamidada in Kakinada district. The temple is dedicated to Rama, the seventh incarnation of Vishnu. It was built on the banks of the Tulyabhaga (Antharvahini), a tributary of the Godavari.

.

.

This ancient site, dedicated to Lord Rama, had an ancient temple constructed during the 10^th century Chola dynasty reign. Kodandarama combines “kodanda,” the name of Rama’s bow, and “Rama,” the deity’s name. The temple is significant as it is believed to be where Rama and Sita stayed during their exile, making it a key pilgrimage site.

.

.

Historical inscriptions from the Chola and Kakatiya dynasties provide evidence of the temple’s origins and patronage. The temple has undergone multiple renovations and expansions over the years, influenced by various ruling dynasties, including the Vijayanagara Empire and the Reddy dynasty. The temple’s architecture blends Chola, Vijayanagara, and Kakatiya styles, showcasing intricate carvings, ornate pillars, and sculptures from the epics. The Kodandarama Temple is an important pilgrimage site and cultural landmark due to its historical and architectural significance. It attracts devotees, scholars, and tourists interested in its rich heritage and artistic beauty.

.

.

The temple is notable for its unique architecture and two huge gopurams adorned with intricately carved sculptures. In 1889, brothers Dwarampudi Subba Reddy and Rami Reddy donated land for a small temple with wooden idols of Rama and Sita. A bigger temple was built in 1939. The two gopurams were constructed in 1948–50 and 1956–58. 

.

.

The temple is also called Chinna Bhadradi or the ‘Little Bhadrachalam’. It is one of the two most popular Rama temples in Andhra Pradesh, besides the Kodandarama temple in Vontimitta. Rama Navami is the major festival celebrated at the temple and features the annual Rama and Sita wedding ceremony. Other important festivals celebrated at the temple are Vaikunta Ekadasi and Vijayadasami.

.

Architecture & Deities

.

Intricately carved shikharas dominate the countryside

Panels depict scenes from the Ramayana

.

The temple complex has striking gopurams, or entrance towers, adorned with detailed sculptures of celestial beings, mythical creatures, and Hindu gods. The east-facing gopuram is 160–170 feet high and has nine storeys and five kalasams. The west-facing gopuram is 200–210 feet high and has 11 storeys and five kalasams. Each floor’s gopurams have detailed carved statues depicting scenes from the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Bhagavatam on all sides. The sikhara of the temple is carved with statues depicting Bala Rāmāyaṇa. Devotees can reach the top storey of the gopurams through a 300-step climb.

.

.

Visitors to the temple enter a large courtyard surrounded by pillared halls that lead to the inner sanctum, where Lord Rama, his consort Sita, and devotee Hanuman are worshipped.

A mirror hall (addala mandapam in Telugu) was built between the two mandapams above the sanctum sanctorum in 1975. The mirror hall features a stucco relief of Sri Rama’s coronation on one side and Rama blessing Hanuman on the other. 

.

.

The Main Sanctum and Its Exquisite Carvings

.

The temple’s main sanctum features stunning carvings and sculptures that illustrate stories from the Ramayana, including Rama’s return to Ayodhya, his coronation, and his battles with the demon king Ravana. The temple’s inner walls feature colourful frescoes and paintings depicting the tales of Lord Rama and his wife, Sita. The temple features a tall vimana and intricately carved pillars, showcasing the artistry of ancient craftsmen meant to inspire awe.

.

.

Around 200 meters from the temple is a Pushkar, a small pond of water sourced from the Tulyabhaga River. Water from the Pushkar is used in various religious ceremonies at the temple. 

The Kodandarama Temple is of great importance in Sanātana Dharma. Lord Rama is revered as the embodiment of righteousness, virtue, and dharma (righteous duty). The Valmiki Ramayana tells the story of Lord Rama, his loyal brother Lakshmana, and his devoted wife Sita as they face and conquer numerous challenges.

.

.

The Kodandarama Temple is a sacred site where devotees seek blessings from Lord Rama and experience peace. The temple is closely linked to the Ramayana, especially during the annual Rama Navami celebrations, which honor the birth of Lord Rama. The temple is vibrant with colourful decorations, devotional music, and lively processions depicting scenes from Rama’s life during this event.

.

Sri Bhavanarayana Swamy Temple, Kakinada

.

.

Sri Bhavanarayana Swamy temple is an ancient temple with a great historical and puranic history in Sarpavaram, Kakinada. It stands as a serene sanctuary that radiates peace and spiritual tranquillity. This beautiful temple dedicated to Lord Vishnu dates back about 5,000 years and is cherished by devotees from all over.

The temple’s detailed architecture and beautifully carved idols create a spiritual atmosphere that invites visitors to find peace and blessings. Upon entering the temple grounds, you’ll encounter Lord Bhavanarayana Swamy, a self-manifested deity who blesses his devotees.

.

.

The ancient Vaishnavite temple showcases a blend of Chalukyan and Chola architecture from the 7^th to 12^th centuries CE, representing both northern and southern styles. The Chalukyas expertly utilised red natural stone and khod to intricately engrave stunning images onto their pillars. It is recognised as one of the revered 108 Vaishnava Divya Desam temples. Vishnu declared that this place is the most revered among all the Divya Desams. Spending three nights here is akin to completing 100 Ashvamedha yajnas. Even Ananta attained permanent service to Lord Vishnu by performing penance here.

.

Itihāsa

.

.

The temple’s history is narrated in the Brahmavaivarta Purana by Sage Agastya to Shaunaka Rishi and other sages in the Naimisharanya forest. Kadru was one of the wives of Sage Kashyapa. She gave birth to a thousand serpents. Kadru told her children to grab the tail of Ucchaishrava, Lord Indra’s white horse, to win a bet with her co-wife. If she was successful, she would make Vinata, her husband’s co-wife, her maidservant.

But Kadru’s sons refused to do so, saying that cheating in the bet was against dharma. Angry at her sons’ refusal, she cursed them to die in the future snake sacrifice led by King Janamejaya. 

Among the thousand sons of Kadru, Ananta was the most pious. To please Vishnu, he searched for a suitable place to perform penances. Finally, he reached the place called Sarpavaram today. Ananta performed intense penances to gain Vishnu’s favor, who then granted him the honor of becoming His divine bed. Vishnu declared that Ananta’s place of penance would be known as Sarpapura thereafter.

.

.

The Lord also proclaimed that He and Lakshmi Devi would be installed there by Sage Narada in the future. With time, Sarpapura became Sarpavaram.

Sage Narada installs Vishnu and Lakshmi Devi at Sarpapura

The revered sage Narada paid a visit to Brahma in the celestial realm of Satyaloka. During their conversation, Brahma said that the entire universe was covered in the māyā (illusion) of Vishnu. Nonetheless, Sage Narada asserted that he remained unaffected by Maya. Hearing this, Brahma chastised Sage Narada for his arrogance.

.

.

Later, while traveling the world on a pilgrimage, Sage Narada reached Sarpapura. The sage took a dip in a lake he saw in Sarpapura to refresh himself. He was immediately turned into a beautiful young woman. He had forgotten his past.

While hunting in the forest, Nakunda, the young prince of Pithapuram, reached Sarpapura. He saw and fell in love with the beautiful young woman, who was Sage Narada. He married her and took her to Pithapuram. Over time, the young woman gave birth to sixty heroic sons, named Prabhava, Vibhava, etc.

.

.

Some time later, a king named Ripunjaya invaded Pithapuram. He mercilessly took the lives of Nakunda and all sixty of his sons. The wife heard about the tragic end of her husband and sons and thought of ending her life. Vishnu appeared before her as a Brahmana. He asked the woman to take a dip in the same lake where she met her husband. On doing the same, the young woman transformed back into Sage Narada, who now remembered all the events. He prayed to Vishnu for forgiveness.

.

.

Vishnu declared, “This lake will be known as Mukti-Kasara, the lake of liberation, thereafter. I command all the holy places in the three worlds to reside here. Those who bathe here will become free from their sins. Of the months, Karthika, Margashirsha, and Magha are the most auspicious. Of the days, Saturday and Sunday are the most auspicious. I shall remain here along with my consort Lakshmi. Please install Me and My consort with all the Vedic rites.”

.

Small shrines to deities are located along the covered verandah

.

Sages and deities gathered in Sarpapura to honor Lord Bhavanarayana, who promised to stay there with Neeladevi and Bhudevi.

.

The Deities

.

.

Sri Bhavanarayana Swamy is the presiding deity of the Bhavanarayana temple, along with Sri Rajyalakshmi Devi. He is depicted majestically atop Sri Garuda at the Paatala Bhavanarayana Swamy Temple. His consort Rajyalakshmi Devi resides opposite him. Adjacent to Lord Bhavanarayana Swamy is the shrine of Manavala Mahamuni.

Garuda and Hanuman also reside in the temple complex.

.

Architecture

.

(L) Sculpted columns have stories to narrate; (R) The garbhgriha with the murti of Sri Bhavanarayana Swamy

.

The Chalukyan architecture is a juxtaposition of Indo-Aryan and Dravidian styles of temple architecture. The rock-cut method of architecture was slowly being superseded by red-stone masonry. The building of the Stambha Mandapa (Navaranga) and sukhanasi, along with the garbhagriha, was a unique contribution of the Chalukyas. The temple features inscriptions of the Eastern Chalukyan kings, the Tamil king Kulottunga, and Katayavema Reddy of the Reddy Kingdom. 

.

.

The mesmerising 500-year-old architecture of the temple has a few points worth detailing. The temple complex is protected by high walls, with the Gopura in the north and the Simhadwara in the east. The Kalyana Mandapam is in the north, while the Dhwajastambha (flag-post) stands in the east.

.

.

The Asthana Mandapam houses Jaya and Vijaya, the doorkeepers of Vaikuntha. The intricately carved shikharas and the gopuram are impressive. The pillars still showcase their beautiful sculptures and carvings, and the temple structure itself narrates many stories from the past.

.

.

Chalukya Kumaram Bhimeswara Temple, Kakinada

.

.

Kumararama, also known as the Chalukya Bhimeswara Temple, is a historic temple located in Samalkota in the Kakinada district. Dedicated to Shiva, it is one of the five Pañcarāma Kshetras, a notable group of Shiva temples in Andhra Pradesh. The five Pañcarāma temples are Draksharama, Kumararama, Ksheerarama, Bheemarama, and Amararama. The origin of the Pañcarāmas is mentioned in the Bhimesvarapurana written by Srinatha (14^th–15^th century CE).

.

.

The temple features a 14-foot white crystal linga, spread across two floors and consecrated by Lord Kumara Swamy, which inspires its name. 

.

.

The temple is traditionally attributed to the Eastern Chalukya King Bhima I, who ruled from 892 to 922 CE. Its architecture reflects the Dravidian style, featuring intricate designs and elements that highlight its historical and cultural significance. Epigraphical evidence, including an inscription at Pithapuram, identifies Chalukya Bhima as the founder of the temple. A sculptural panel of a royal couple at the temple likely represents Chalukya Bhima I and his queen. The inscription says that Chalukya Bhima, son of Vikramaditya, won 360 battles and ruled for 30 years.

.

.

The temple epigraphs refer to the construction of a mukhamandapa at the eastern entrance in 1394 CE. Inscriptions from 1422 CE mention the construction of additional structures, including the Srimukha mandapam and Niluvu mandapam.

.

Itihāsa

.

.

The demon Tarakasura is supposed to have performed intense penance and was granted the Atmalinga as a boon by Shiva. Tarakasura also secured an additional boon: that he could only be killed by a child, rendering him nearly invincible. Tarakasura, empowered by the Atmalinga he wore around his neck, terrorised the gods, prompting them to seek refuge with Vishnu. Vishnu stated that only a child born from Shiva’s divine energy could defeat Tarakasura, prompting the gods to pray to Shiva for assistance. 

.

.

In response to their prayers, Shiva created a child, Kumara Swamy (Kartikeya), from his divine energy. During his childhood, Kumara Swamy mastered all martial arts and became a skilled warrior. Accompanied by divine forces, he confronted Tarakasura. Kumara Swamy realised that the Atmalinga around Tarakasura’s neck gave him invincibility. He attacked fiercely, breaking the Atmalinga into pieces and defeating Tarakasura. 

.

The smaller shrines along the covered verandah

.

Fragments of the Atmalinga landed in various places in Andhra Pradesh, creating the sacred Siva Lingas worshipped at the Pancharama Kshetras. This connection is detailed in the Skanda Purana and Siva Maha Purana. Legend has it that the Shivalingam here was installed by Skanda, hence the name Kumararama. There are puranic references to Kumararama in the Skanda Purana. Parvati here is referred to as Bala Tripurasundari.

. 

Architecture

.

.

The Bhimeswara Temple in Samalkot, like the one in Draksharamam, displays the traditional Dravidian style with six main features. The temple, made of strong basalt, showcases medieval Chalukyan engineering with precisely cut stones held together by gravity instead of glue. The Eastern Chalukyas used soft sandstone to build durable temples with intricate designs, enhancing both beauty and strength. 

.

Outer Prakara Walls

.

The temple is encircled by two prakara walls made of large granite blocks, each measuring approximately 6’×4′. The outer prakara wall is tall, with a simple cornice outside and lotus-and-bead garland decorations inside. Four cardinal entrances, or gopura-dwaras, punctuate the outer wall, each with ardha-mandapas. The northern entrance, now the primary access point, includes a rectangular portico with ornate pilasters and sculptures. 

.

Mandapas and Entrances

.

.

The eastern entrance faces a tank with a four-pillared mandapa at its centre. The mandapa, supported by pillars with square bases and octagonal shafts, exhibits exquisite carvings, including lotuses and decorative bands. The southern and western entrances resemble the eastern structure but include unique decorative elements, such as dwarapalakas in dvibhanga poses holding tridents and damarus.

.

.

The north-western corner houses a large mandapa with 67 intricately carved pillars. This showcases the Simhapada pillar, renowned for its impressive lion-base design. The north-eastern corner features the Uyala Mandapa, an impressive structure that gently sways, showcasing the talent of Chalukyan architects.

 

Inner Prakara and Verandahs

 

 

The inner enclosure wall, made of riveted granite blocks, divides the inner and outer sanctums. This wall showcases exquisite pilasters, sophisticated gables, and enchanting simhalalata motifs. Two-storey verandas with rows of pillars surround the main shrine, and offer a cloister-like experience. Carved icons of Surya, Vishnu, Saraswati, and others embellish the veranda niches. 

 

Main Shrine

 

 

The central shrine, disconnected from the outer structures, is a two-storey rectangular edifice measuring 24.6 x 13.9 metres. The lower story serves as a non-functional base, while the upper story houses the sanctum and is used for rituals. The adhisthana features intricate moldings, including depictions of elephants, lions, and floral patterns. The garbhagriha contains a tall octagonal lingam, accessible through a pradakshina patha.

 

 

The vimana above the sanctum is a two-tiered structure of the Nagara style, recently renovated with plaster. The original design, though obscured, retains elements such as rowed geese, lotuses, and kuta-shalas.

 

Additional Features

 

 

A small stone model of the temple near the southern entrance highlights the artistic expertise of the era. The Tiruchchutramala is a walkway around the shrine, featuring 67 pillars intricately sculpted with dancers, musicians, and mythical figures. 

 

 

Devotees start by praying at the top of the Siva Lingam on the first floor, then they worship the base or feet of the Lingam. The temple features sub-shrines for various deities, including Kala Bhairava, Maha Kali, Veerabhadra, Vinayaka, Saneswara, and the Navagrahas (nine planets). A majestic monolithic stone Nandi gazes directly at the Shiva Lingam within the garbhagriha. 

 

 

A unique aspect of the temple is that sunlight touches the deity’s feet in the morning and the goddess’s feet in the evening during Chaitra and Vaisakha. 

 

 

Shri Veera Venkata Sathyanarayana Swamy Temple, Annavaram

 

Sri Veera Venkata Satyanarayana Swamy Temple is a Vaishnavite temple in Annavaram in the Kakinada district. Dedicated to Lord Satyanarayana Swamy, an incarnation of Lord Vishnu, the temple is situated on Ratnagiri Hill. It is one of the most visited and wealthiest temples in Andhra Pradesh. The temple is a major pilgrimage site, ranking second in significance in the state, after the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple. 

.

.

The temple attracts thousands of devotees daily, particularly for the Satyanarayana Vratham, a ritual performed for wealth, health, and prosperity. Consecrated in 1891, the temple has undergone various expansions and renovations, including significant reconstruction in the 1930s. The place, known as Annavaram (meaning “food” in Telugu), was famous for free food distribution by generous locals. Another explanation for the name Annavaram is that the local deity grants devotees anina varam (or boons).

. 

History

.

The temple originated from a vision of a devoted Brahmin named Eeranki Prakasa Rao in the village of Annavaram. During the period of Raja Inuganti Venkata Ramarayanim Bahadur, both Prakasa Rao and the local ruler had a simultaneous dream in which Lord Vishnu instructed them: “On the forthcoming Sravana Sukla Vidiya, under the Makha Nakshatra on a Thursday, I will manifest on the Ratnagiri Hill. You shall install my idol as per the sacred rituals and serve me.” 

.

.

After the divine revelation, Prakasa Rao and the ruler shared their visions with the villagers and planned a visit to Annavaram on Sravana Sukla Padyami of the Khara year. They found the murti while searching for the deity on the hill, illuminated by sunlight under a Krishna Kutaja (Ankudu) tree. The villagers carefully uncovered the murti and transported it to the summit of Ratnagiri. On August 6, 1891, the idol was consecrated using the traditional Vishnu Panchayatana system, and the Sri Matripada Vibhuti Maha Vaikuntha Narayana Yantra from Kasi was installed. The original temple was a simple shed, later expanded into a more elaborate structure with help from devotees. The temple was reconstructed in stone during 1933–34 and showcases a unique blend of iconography. 

.

.

Sri Krishnadevaraya of Vijayanagar used secret underground passages in the hills to launch surprise attacks on the Kalinga kings. Andhra revolutionary Alluri Seetharama Raju had secret hideouts in these hills for himself and his followers during his rebellion against British rule.

.

Legend

.

Annavaram is home to the sacred Ratnagiri Hill. The Sthala Purana states that the famous Meru Mountain, significant in Sanatana Dharma, underwent intense penance to Vishnu with his wife Menaka. Pleased by their devotion, Vishnu blessed them with two sons, Bhadra and Ratnakara, who were born as mountains. Bhadra, after performing penance dedicated to Vishnu, was transformed into Bhadrachalam, the abode of Rama. Ratnakara’s penance was rewarded when Vishnu appeared as Sri Veera Venkata Satyanarayana Swamy on Ratnagiri Hill, or Ratnachalam. 

.

.

Architecture

.

The temple is located on Ratnagiri Hill, adjacent to the banks of the Pampa River. It can be reached by a 3-km road or through a stone pathway for pedestrians. The temple is on a hill with a nice view of the Bay of Bengal (11 miles away) and the Eastern Ghats, and is surrounded by green fields and the Pampa River near Ratnagiri. The hillock itself is about 300 feet above sea level. About 300 well-laid stone steps lead to the top of it. The main entrance of the temple has been adorned with gold plating, enhancing its grandeur. 

.

.

The Akriti of any temple is, according to the Agni Purana, merely a manifestation of the Prakriti. Ancient texts elaborate on this idea, stating that the design of the temple’s wall and vimana should remind devotees of the universe and the Supreme Spirit within, which represents the essence of the entire universe. The chariot symbolizes the seven lokas above and below, with the Lord’s garbhalaya at the center, representing His rule over the entire universe. The temple at Annavaram has been constructed to depict this idea concretely. The front side of the temple depicts the chariot. The Meru on the floor with the pillar at the center and the murtis at the top are intended to bring forth the idea that the Lord not only remains at the heart’s center but also permeates the entire universe. The wheels depicting the Sun and the Moon serve to remind us that this Jaggernaut moves on the wheels of time and goes on forever and ever. Thus, the Annavaram temple satisfies both the ritualistic values and the spiritual aspirations of its devotees.

.

.

The structure follows the principles outlined in the Agni Purana, with the central sanctum symbolising the Supreme Spirit. The ground floor has a unique yantra called the Sri Matripada Vibhuti Maha Vaikuntha Narayana Yantra, known for its powerful attraction. This yantra is surrounded by deities forming a panchayatana, including Ganapati, Suryanarayanaswamy, Bala Tripurasundari, and Maheswaraswamy.

.  

Deities

.

.

The main sanctum contains a 13-foot-tall cylindrical sculpture representing the unity of the Trimurti, with Brahma at the base in the lower sanctum, Shiva in the center, and Vishnu at the top in the upper sanctum. The first floor holds the principal deity, Sri Veera Venkata Satyanarayana Swamy, accompanied by Anantha Lakshmi Devi and Shiva. A nearby temple dedicated to Sri Rama, called Kshetra Palaka, marks the location where the original murti was found. The temple also features a mandapam for conducting Satyanaraya Vrathams.

Like in all Divyakshetrams, as surrounded and followed by holy rivers, Sri Satyanarayana Swamy at Annavaram is also followed by the sacred Pampa River touching the feet of the hill. Lord Satyadeva is manifested in the form of the DIVINE TRINITY namely Hari Hara Hiranya Garbha Thrimurtyatmaka. Hence this is the temple that attracts followers of both Vishanava and Saiva sects.

.

Festivals

.

.

The temple draws thousands of devotees daily for the Satyanarayana Vratham, seeking wealth, health and prosperity. Ekadasi is the most sacred day for the ritual, but devotees also perform it on other days. The temple is a major pilgrimage site for both Vaishnavite and Shaivite devotees. 

.

Shri Suryanarayana Swamy Temple, Srikakulam

.

.

Sri Surya Narayana Swamy Devalayam is a temple for Surya at Arasavalli, Srikakulam. The temple was likely constructed in the 7th century CE by King Devendra Varma of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty. The present structure is largely a result of 18th-century renovations. The temple was built in the Rekha deula style of Kalinga architecture, like the Puri Jagannath temple of Odisha. This temple is considered one of the oldest sun temples in India. The temple is one of the last two in India that worship Surya, as the third was destroyed by Sikandar Shah Miri. The other two are the Konark Sun Temple, Odisha, and the Martand Sun Temple, Jammu and Kashmir.

.

.

According to Padmapuranam, Sage Kashyapa installed the vigraha of Surya at Arasavalli for the welfare of mankind. Therefore, Surya is of Kashyapa Gotra. He is also termed a planetary king. The Stala Puranam narrates the story behind Indra installing the existing vigraha of Surya, commonly known as Lord Suryanarayana Swamy.

.

.

According to legend, in Dvāparayuga, Balarama’s brother Krishna brought the Nagavali River with his plough. He also built the Sun temple on the riverbank. All devas worshipped Rudra and Parvati in this temple. However, Indra arrived late and tried to enter the temple, but Nandi stopped him from entering. Ignoring the words of Dwarapalaka Nandi, he attempted to force his entry. Nandi, in the discharge of his duties, kicked the intruder, and Indra fell senseless. Indra, in his unconscious state, dreamt that building a temple and installing a murti of Surya would relieve his chest pain caused by Nandi. After regaining consciousness, he remembered the dream. He dug up dirt three times at the spot and found a beautiful statue of Surya with his three consorts: Usha, Chaya and Padmini. Indra then created a pool, Indra Pushkarini.

.

.

At the base of the idols are the figures of Mathara and Pingala, the Dwarapalakas. High up are the two divine saints, Sanaka and Sanadana holding chatrams (umbrellas). Surya is depicted riding a chariot drawn by Aruna, the radhasaradhy. All these figures are exquisitely carved out of a single, finely polished black granite stone. 

There are smaller shrines for Bhuvaneshwari, before which is a Shiva lingam along with a metal Nandi. There are also shrines for Vishnu, Anjaneya, Kala Bhairava, and Subramanya. The Navagrahas are in a glass enclosure. 

.

.

Stone inscriptions reveal that Devendra Varma, the ruler of Kalinga, built the temple and installed a Surya image in the late 7^th century. The stone inscriptions indicate that some lands were assigned to Surya for permanent lamps in the temple and to support a school or hostel for students of the Sastras and Vedas. These donations were made by the successors of Kalinga King Devendra Varma before the 11^th century CE. 

The temple is designed to spotlight Surya with sunlight twice a year, in March and September, in the morning. The rays illuminate the murti through the five entrance gates of the temple and remain there for a few minutes.

.

.

Sunday is an auspicious day for worshipping Surya. The temple is believed to cure people of their ailments because Surya bestows good health. People who suffer from eye and skin diseases pay homage to the temple and benefit. Visiting the temple and praying to Surya has the power to heal them from their sickness. 

.

Festivals

.

Kalyanotsavam is celebrated annually for five days in March–April, celebrating the Sun God, Sri Suryanarayana Swamy.

Ratha Saptami, Maha Shivaratri, Janmashtami, and Vaikunda Ekadashi are celebrated with great pomp and show.

Nitya Annadanam is provided daily to pilgrims inside the Nitya Annadana Mandapam in the Sri Suryanarayana Swamy Temple. 

.

Sri Kurmanathaswamy Temple, Srikakulam

.

.

The Sri Kurmanathaswamy Temple also called the Kurmanatha Temple, is dedicated to Kurma, the second avatar of Vishnu. It is located in Srikurmam village, in Srikakulam district. The inscriptional history of the temple begins in the 11^th–12^th century CE. The temple is popular among the Tamil diaspora as well because it is a Vaishnavite temple. Ramanuja’s disciples established Vaishnavism in the temple with the support of Kalinga King Anantavarman Chodaganga.

.

.

In 1035 CE, Anantavarman Chodaganga Deva of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty in Odisha transformed the temple from a Shiva temple to a Vaishnava kshetra. The temple was built in a fusion of Kalinga and Dravidian architecture. The temple walkway, created by King Anangabhima Deva III of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty, honors Vishnu as Kurmanathaswamy and his consort Lakshmi as Kurmanayaki. The temple has century-old Orissan Pattachitra-style mural paintings on the side wall of the pradakshina mandapa. 

.

Exquisite sculptures of deities are placed in niches around the main shrine

.

Origins

.

.

During the reign of King Swetha Chakravarthi, this area was referred to as Swetha Giri. Swetha Chakravarthi’s wife, Vishnu Priya, was a devotee of Vishnu. When she was observing a fast on Ekadasi, Swetha Chakravarthi approached her, intending to make love. When she refused, saying the time was inappropriate, the king became adamant. She prayed to Vishnu, who created a stream of water, separating the couple. Swetha Chakravarthi was swept away by the flood, and Vishnu Priya followed him to the hills of Swetha Giri. Sage Narada initiated a upadesam of the Kurma Narayana mantra and asked the king to pray to Vishnu using it. By the time Vishnu appeared in the form of the Kurma (tortoise) avatar, the king’s health had deteriorated. Vishnu then made his Sudarshana Chakra make an impression in the nearby land, forming a lake. Swetha Chakravarthi bathed in the lake and regained his health, after which it was referred to as Swetha Pushkarani. Upon the king’s request, Vishnu manifested as the deity Kurmanatha. According to the Padma Purana, Brahma officiated at the celestial rituals and consecrated the deity with Gopala Yantra. Vishnu is worshipped as Kurmanatha Swamy or Kurma Narayana, along with his consort Lakshmi, who is called Kurmanayaki.

.

.

Srikurmam is the only known pre-14^th century temple dedicated to the Kurma avatar. Later temples include the Sri Gaviranganatha Swami temple in Karnataka and the Sri Kurma Varadaraja Swami temple in Andhra Pradesh.

.

.

The Srikurmam temple is known for its distinctive architectural style. The design of the gopuram is different from the regular style seen at other Vaishnavite temples. It has two dwajasthambas, one on the west and the other on the east, another rarity for a Vaishnavite temple. The upper part of the sanctum sanctorum is built in the form of an ashtadala padmam (eight-petalled lotus). Devotees can directly enter the sanctum sanctorum to pray, which is different from traditional Vaishnavism traditions. 

.

The Swetha Pushkarni (above) and the adjoining mandapa (below)

.

Pillars narrate their stories (L) Telgu inscriptions on one of the 108 ekasila (monolithic) pillars narrate the ancient history of the temple (R) A view of the lion-base pillars at the mandapa of the Swetha Pushkarni

.

The utsava deities of Govindaraja Swamy and his consorts, Sridevi and Bhudevi, were discovered in the Swetha Pushkarani in the 12^th century. The utsava deities of Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana were presented by Naraharitirtha. All these deities are placed in a room near the sanctum sanctorum and are worshipped daily. The deity of Kurmanathaswamy is made of black stone, but due to regular applications of sandalwood paste, it appears yellow. It sits on a stone platform. The deity is 2.5 feet long and consists of three stone structures. The front stone symbolises the head facing west, the middle stone represents the tortoise’s body, and the small rear stone, with swirling circles, signifies the tail or Sudarshana Chakra. 

.

.

The sanctum of the Kurmanatha temple has both a tortoise image and an anthropomorphic Vishnu with Lakshmi. The temple was an important centre of Vaishnavism in the medieval period, along with Simhachalam. Later, Naraharitirtha, a disciple of Madhvacharya, was instrumental in making Srikurmam the seat of Vaishnavite religious activities. The temple has two dwajasthambas, and 108 ekasila (single-stone) pillars, each unique in design. They also bear numerous inscriptions. A tortoise park has been built within the temple complex to conserve adult and young tortoises. The temple has primarily Vaishnava iconography and murals, but also reverentially includes Shaiva (Ganesha, Shiva) and Shakti (Lakshmi, Durga) icons.

.

.

Srikurmam follows both Shaivite and Vaishnavite traditions of worship. 

.

.

Mukhalingam

.

Mukhalingam, also known as Srimukhalingam or Mukhalinga, is a panchayat in Jalumuru mandal of Srikakulam district. Mukhalingam, formerly Kalinganagari, served as the capital of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty from the 6^th to the 12^th century CE. Emperor Sri Anantavarma Chodaganga Devara conquered Utkala in 1122 CE and shifted the capital from Kalinganagari to Caudwara Kataka.

.

.

The town is located on the left bank of the Vamsadhara River.

Mukhalingam has three (trikuta temple site) Shiva temples—Madhukeswara, Someswara, and Bhimeswara—dating from the late eighth to early eleventh century CE. Sri Mukhalingam’s main temple was built by Eastern Ganga King Kamanaba Deva II, the great-grandfather of Anantavarman Chodaganga of Kalinga.

“Mukhalingam” is a corruption of “Mohalingam”, which is the Prakrit form of “Madhu[ka]linga”.

.

Sri Madhukeswara Temple, Mukhalingam

.

.

Sri Madhukeswara Temple, also known as Dakshina Kashi (Varanasi of the South), is one of India’s hidden gems. Situated in Mukhalingam village, this temple is located on the banks of the Vamsadhara River. This was the Kalinga Ganga dynasty’s capital for over 600 years, and the temple displays stunning architecture that reflects the region’s rich history and culture. This magnificent site is also recognised as a protected monument by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). Its unique Shiva Lingam has a carved face.

.

.

The Madhukeswara (also referred to as Mukhalingeshwara) Temple, among the three temples in Mukhalingam, is the oldest and faces eastward. Its distinctive architectural features include a three Khakhara Deul-style gopura with a stone kalasa (finial) crowning it, and this entrance is flanked by imposing lion sculptures.

.

.

Visiting this temple and bathing in the river is thought to break the cycle of rebirth.

.

.

An Architectural Wonder 

.

.

The Sri Madhukeswara Temple, dedicated to Shiva, showcases Indo-Aryan architectural brilliance. The temple complex features the Mukhalingeswara (Madhukeswara), Aniyanka Bheemeswara, and Someswara temples, showcasing the remarkable craftsmanship of the Kalinga kings. This beautifully carved temple in a scenic location is a must-visit for both devotees and architecture enthusiasts.

.

.

History 

.

.

The temple was built in the 8^th century CE by Kāmārnava II, son of Dānārnava, of the Eastern Ganga dynasty. King Anantavarman Cōdaganga’s Korni Copper-Plate Grant (1077–1147 CE) reveals that Kāmārṇava, an ancestor of Cōdaganga, constructed this temple.

.

Subsidiary shrines at the four corners of the temple compound

.

The temple follows the Panchayatana style of architecture, where the main shrine is elevated on a platform, and there are four smaller subsidiary shrines at the four corners, totaling five shrines in all. The Jagamohana (assembly hall) has a flat roof supported by six pillars.

.

.

The temple is constructed atop a raised platform and can be accessed via a flight of steps. It is enclosed within a compound wall. Immediately after entering through the eastern gate, you’ll encounter a Nandi statue housed in a mandapa, facing the sanctum.

.

Phenomenal workmanship of craftsmen is seen everywhere

.

As the name suggests, the temple features a unique Shiva Lingam with a face (Sri Mukham). The lingam, carved from the fossilised trunk of a Madhuka tree, is unique in India. Local legend states that Lord Shiva appeared in this tree to help a group of Gandharvas, who were cursed by Vamadeva Maharshi to live as tribes called Sabaras. Thus, the temple also honours Shiva as Sri Madhukeswara Swamy. Another story mentions that Chitrasena attempted to cut down a tree to resolve a conflict between his wives, who were both worshipping the tree as a lingam. When he attempted to cut down the tree, the face of Shiva is said to have appeared on the trunk.

.

Numerous beautiful sculptures in niches cover the walls

.

Legend of the Golem (Huge Mud Pot)

.

One of the temple’s fascinating stories revolves around a large mud pot, or Golem, placed behind the deity. According to temple lore, a potter named Naganna offered a large pot of milk to Lord Shiva but couldn’t carry it into the temple due to its size. To his surprise, the next morning, the pot was found behind the deity—a miraculous act attributed to Shiva. As a reward for his devotion, Naganna was blessed with a child.

.

.

Architecture

.

Numerous deities inside the temple

.

The stone building features sculptures and carvings of gods, goddesses, and scenes from the Puranas, with intricately designed images beside the doorway. With an exquisite archway and a pair of rock-cut lions at the entrance, this temple is a connoisseur’s delight.

.

.

Festivals 

.

.

The temple witnesses a huge influx of pilgrims during Maha Shivaratri. On this special day, devotees gather to bathe in the Vamsadhara River, known as Chakratirtha snanam, and ask for Lord Shiva’s blessings. The festival is celebrated with various cultural performances and religious events over two days.

.

Bheemeshwara Temple, Mukhalingam

.

.

Situated nearby is the Bheemeshwara temple, which was built in the 11^th century by Aninayaka Bheeshwara. This temple is not as richly decorated as the other two. There are two Nandi sculptures from different periods: one in Ganga style and the other in Chola style. This is very unique and is an indication of the melting pot that Srikakulam is.

.

.

This temple was built slightly later than the Mukhalingeshwara temple, during the reign of King Vajrahasta II (Aniyaka Bhima) (979-1014 CE).

.

.

There are two Nandi sculptures from different periods, one built in the Ganga style of architecture, and the other built in the Chola style. This is very unique and is an indication of the melting pot that Srikakulam is.

.

Architecture

.

.

This east-facing temple is situated close to the Mukhalingeshwara Temple. On a raised platform, two Nandi murtis face the sanctum. One Nandi belongs to the Eastern Ganga era, while the other Nandi belongs to the Chola period. The temple itself is built on an elevated platform and has a triratha (three-tiered) architectural plan.

.

.

The Sanctum Sanctorum comprises three parts: the Maha Mandapa (main hall), Antrala (vestibule), and the sanctum. The Maha Mandapa, like the Mukhalingeshwara Temple, has entrances on the east and south, but its walls are simple and undecorated.

.

Sculptures of various deities are installed in niches on the external walls

.

Inside the Maha Mandapa, there are sculptures of various forms of Lord Vishnu, Lord Shiva, Nandi, and architectural fragments. The temple’s main deity is Bhimeswara, represented by a linga. The shikhara (tower) over the sanctum follows the Pidha Deul architectural style.

.

.

Around the walls of the sanctum, there are niche images of Dakshinamurthy, Brahma, and Narasimha. On the exterior walls of the antaralaya, you can spot depictions of Ganesha and Mahishasuramardini. The temple features inscriptions from the Gajapati and Eastern Ganga periods, offering historical and cultural insights into its past.

.

Someshvara Temple, Mukhalingam

.

.

The Someshwar temple, a short walk up the street, has a beautiful gopuram adorned with sculptures of gods and goddesses, along with images of Ganga and Yamuna by the doorway.

.

.

The temple was likely built in the late 9^th or early 10^th century CE by the Eastern Gangas, based on its architecture and iconography.

.

.

Architecture

.

The Ekpada aspect of Shiva is depicted in this niche; the details of the top of the panel are shown below. In Orissa, Ekapada is considered an aspect of Bhairava and is called Ekapada Bhairava

This niche depicts Kartikeya seated on the peacock, his vahana

.

This west-facing temple is constructed atop a raised platform and features a Nandi statue facing the sanctum. Notably, the temple consists only of the sanctum and lacks any mandapa (hall).

.

.

The lintel of the sanctum doorway is adorned with a Gajalakshmi motif, and above it, there is a Navagraha panel. On the doorjambs, you can find depictions of the river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna.

.

Niches depicting Shiva

.

The presiding deity of the temple is known as Someswara and is oriented westward. The deity is enshrined in the form of a linga. The shikhara (tower) over the sanctum follows the rekha deula style, characteristic of early Odishan architecture.

.

.

On the bhadra projection of the temple’s walls, there are larger niches on the facets, each of which is flanked by two smaller niches. The larger niches feature deities like Ganesha, Kartikeya, and Mahishasuramardini, while the smaller niches display Lakulisa and Ardhanarisvara. These niches are richly decorated and intricately carved with ornate designs.

.

.

The lamps illuminate the temple, providing a glimpse of how beautiful it would have looked in its heydays

.

.

Panels of Surya, Shiva, and Lakulīśa are carved above the Mula Manjari (a decorative element) at the temple’s cardinal points, enhancing its artistic and architectural beauty.

.

Sri Varaha Lakshmi Narasimha Temple, Simhachalam, Visakhapatnam

.

Sitting proudly atop Visakhapatnam’s breathtaking Simhachalam Hill range is the Varaha Lakshmi Narasimha Temple, also known as the Simhachala Temple. This temple is an important shrine for Lord Vishnu in his Varaha Narasimha form and is a key pilgrimage site in the area. It is 800 meters above sea level. According to temple legend, Vishnu took the form of a lion-headed man to rescue his devotee Prahlada from his father, Hiranyakashipu. Except on Akshaya Tritiya, the Varaha Narasimha idol is covered in sandalwood paste all year, giving it a linga appearance. The temple was built in the Kalinga architectural style and stands uniquely in the historical region of Kalinga. The current temple was built by Eastern Ganga King Narasingha Deva I in the 13^th century and consecrated by his son Bhanudeva I in 1268 CE. Akthayi Senapati built the temple on the command of Narasimha Deva I.  

.

.

Simhachalam is one of the 32 Narasimha temples in Andhra Pradesh, which are important pilgrimage centers. It was an important center of Vaishnavism during the medieval period, alongside Srikurmam and the Jagannath Temple in Puri. Epigraphists have discovered nearly 500 inscriptions in the temple complex. The oldest inscription in the temple is from the 11^th century CE, marking a gift from a private donor during the reign of Chola king Kulottunga Chola, son of Raja Raja Narendra. The second oldest inscription is a donation from Anantavarman Chodaganga Deva, the king of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty, who conquered Odisha and ruled from the Ganga to the Godavari. It later received support from royal families, especially the Suryavanshi Gajapati dynasty of Odisha and the Tuluva dynasty of the Vijayanagara Empire. The inscriptions range from 1516 to 1519 CE. During his military campaigns in the Kalinga region, Krishnadevaraya erected a Jayastambha (pillar of victory) at Simhachalam. He gifted ornaments to the deity for the merit of his parents. His wives, Tirumala Devi and Chinnamma Devi, also gifted ornaments. The Tuluva kings supported the perpetuation of the property of Simhachalam up to the 16^th century CE.

The Simhachalam temple looks like a fortress, featuring intricately detailed walls, ornate gates, three outer courtyards, and five entrances. The temple faces west instead of east, signifying victory. There are two temple tanks: Swami Pushkarini near the temple and Gangadhara at the bottom of the hill. The temple houses several sub-shrines and a few mandapams. The religious practices and customs of the temple were formulated by the Vaiṣṇavite philosopher Rāmānuja. They are modeled based on the Śātvata Samhitā, one of the 108 texts of the Pancharatra Agama. 

The temple provides a serene and diverse spiritual environment, offering a unique experience for worshippers and visitors alike.

.

Itihāsa

.

The Vishnu Purana and Bhagavata Purana form the major source for the itihāsa of Simhachalam. The Sthala Purana of Simhachalam consists of 32 chapters; the number denotes the manifestations of Narasimha. The history of Simhachalam and other Hindu temples in Andhra Pradesh was documented in the 14th century after the rise of Islam in the area. These were based on the stories of Narasimha available in the Puranas.  

.

.

Once, the Four Kumaras, who were the mind-born sons of Lord Brahma, visited Lord Vishnu’s abode, Vaikuntha, as children. Jaya-Vijaya, the demigod gatekeepers of Vaikuntha, failed to recognise them and denied them entry. In their resentment, they cursed the duo, condemning them to lose their divinity and live as mortals on Earth. Vishnu failed to revoke the curse of the Kumaras and felt sorry. He later offered two solutions: either being Vishnu’s devotees in seven human lives or his enemies in three demonic lives. Jaya-Vijaya could not bear separation from Vishnu for a long time and chose the second option. 

In their first demonic life during Satya Yuga, Jaya-Vijaya were born as Hiranyakashipu and Hiranyaksha to Sage Kashyapa and Diti (a daughter of Daksha) in an inauspicious time during sunset. The asuras were believed to be born from their union during dusk, considered an inauspicious time for such acts.

Hiranyaksha made the Earth lose its vitality and sink into rasatala, the lowest cosmic level, to taunt Lord Brahma and the other gods. Vishnu assumed the form of a boar, referred to as Varaha, and restored the Earth to its normal position. Varaha later killed Hiranyaksha in a war that lasted for a thousand years. Hiranyakashipu vowed to seek revenge and prayed to Brahma. He received a boon that made him immune to death at any time, whether by day or night, and by any creature, human or animal. 

.

.

When the gods, led by Brahma, visited Vaikuntha to report events to Vishnu, a guardian named Sumukha blocked their way. They managed to meet Vishnu and also convey the misbehaviour of Sumukha. Vishnu assured them that Hiranyakashipu would be killed and Sumukha would be the serving cause. Sumukha pleaded for a pardon, but Vishnu denied it, saying that an offence against his devotees is inexcusable. Thus, Sumukha was born as Hiranyakashipu’s son, Prahlada. 

Prahlada displayed staunch devotion towards Vishnu in his childhood. As a result, he had to face many death travails. In one such instance, Hiranyakashipu’s soldiers threw him from the top of a hill and placed a mountain on him. Vishnu jumped over the hill and lifted Prahlada from the sea. Prahlada prayed to Vishnu to take a form that combined Varaha, who defeated Hiranyaksha, and Narasimha, who would soon defeat Hiranyakashipu. Vishnu assumed the form of Varaha Narasimha, for whom Prahlada built a temple after Hiranyakashipu’s death. Worship was conducted, and the place was named Simhachalam (Lion’s Hill).

.

Ramanuja’s visit

.

In the 11^th century CE, after winning a debate at the Puri Jagannath temple, the Vaishnavite saint Ramanuja visited the Srikurmam and Simhachalam temples. Simhachalam’s deity was believed to be Shiva. Key reasons included the unique location of the deity’s statue, the lower gate called Bhairava Dwaram, and a second temple tank called Gangadhara. The annual Kamadahana celebration, traditionally held in Shiva temples, reinforced local beliefs. 

Ramanuja argued that the murti of Varaha Narasimha is in a posture following the Pancharatra Agama rules. He added that Kamadahana is celebrated here for the temple’s purification as per the Sishtachara traditions. Ramanuja pointed out that Shiva’s manifestation, Bhairava, is neither the guardian of the Bhairava Dwaram nor worshipped as one. Ramanuja defeated the scholars at Simhachalam and converted it into a Vaishnavite temple. 

Varaha Narasimha’s vigraha, when covered with sandalwood paste, resembles a Shiva lingam. Ramanuja took personal possession of the temple and ordered the priests to remove the paste. The conversion work began, and before its completion, the murti started bleeding. Feeling the deity’s anger for violating the rule, sandalwood paste was applied again, which stopped the blood flow. They presumed that the deity wished to look like a lingam and continued the tradition except for one day.  

.

Architecture

.

According to Hindu texts, Purushottama Samhita and the Vishnu Samhita, a west-facing temple signifies victory, while an east-facing one represents prosperity. It is believed that the Gangadhara’s flow from east to west is the reason why the temple faces west. A prakaram covers the entire temple with two gateways on the northern and western sides. The temple has a five-tiered rajagopuram (main tower) on the western gateway. Devotees enter the temple through a side door that leads to the Kalyana Mandapa (wedding hall), featuring 96 pillars. It has columns and walls on which the images of Vishnu, his consort Lakshmi, and the Alvars are carved. Near the entrance, the footprints of Hindu saint Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, installed by Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati in 1930, can be seen. At the end, a gateway leads to the main hall. Before the sanctum sanctorum, an altar with the images of Radha and Krishna can be worshipped. 

.

.

The sanctum sanctorum of the temple is cube-shaped, and its walls feature sculptures carved in Kalinga style. The pidha deula, a three-tiered vimana in Odia Shilpa Sastra, is similar to the Konark temple and has a stepped pyramid design with detailed sculptures. The corners of the base of the vimana bear lion statuettes symbolising Narasimha. On the eastern face of the vimana, images of Indra and Gajalakshmi are found. A gold-plated dome with a Vaishnavite symbol caps the vimana. On the southern wall of the sanctum, a sculpture of Narasimha killing Hiranyakashipu in Prahlada’s presence is present. 

Narasimha is seen in a standing posture, a unique feature of the temple’s architecture. The forearms rest on Hiranyakashipu, who is positioned on the left thigh, while the rear arms hold a weapon and a conch. The northern wall features a Varaha sculpture similar to those in the Belur Chennakesava and Hoysaleswara temples. Krishna’s images are found above these two sculptures. The southern wall depicts a scene of Kalinga Marthana, and the northern wall has an image of Krishna lifting Govardhan.

.

.

The moolavirat of Varaha Narasimha is kept in a separate hall named Prahlada mandapa. In its original form, the murti of Varaha Narasimha is two and a half feet tall. The deity stands in a tribhanga posture with a boar’s head, a human torso, and a lion’s tail. On either side of the deity, the idols of Sridevi and Bhudevi, holding lotus flowers, are seen. The sculpture of Varaha Narasimha has no ornaments or drapery carved on its body. Its limbs and face are disfigured due to vandalism. The moolavar is covered with sandalwood paste imported from Srivilliputhur, Tamil Nadu. After applying sandalwood paste, the moolavar resembles a four-foot-tall Shiva Lingam. There is enough space for devotees to offer pradakshinas (circumambulations) to the deity inside the Prahlada mandapa. The temple uses only four main ornaments: a diamond and ruby Thirunamam, an emerald chain, a 100-tola gold bracelet, and a golden crown. 

.

Festivals

.

Simhachalam is the second-largest temple after Tirumala in Andhra Pradesh in terms of income earned. Devotees believe that the deity can give progeny to women and fulfill the wishes of devotees. Kalyanotsava and Chandanotsava are the two major festivals celebrated in the temple, followed by Narasimha Jayanti, Navaratrotsava, and Kamadahana. 

Chandanotsava (sandalwood festival), also known as Chandan Yatra, is the most important festival celebrated in the temple. It is celebrated on the festival day of Akshaya Tritiya (April–May). On this day, the sandalwood paste, commonly referred to as Chandanam, covering the moolavar throughout the year, is removed. Chandanam is applied to the moolavar four times a year: on Akshaya Tritiya and the full moons of Vaisakha, Jyeshtha, and Āṣāḍha.

The Varaha Lakshmi Narasimha Temple on Simhachalam Hill offers a memorable experience for both devotees and travellers. Its impressive presence, rich culture, stunning views, and strong spirituality make it a perfect destination for spiritual exploration and devotion.

.

Conclusion

.

Coastal Andhra Pradesh whispers of ancient wisdom and vibrates with a spiritual energy that resonates deep within. Here, where the Bay of Bengal kisses the shores, time seems to slow, allowing for a profound connection with the divine. This land is filled with ancient temples that reflect a rich heritage and the lasting faith of many generations.

Picture yourself walking among wise thinkers and scholars, exploring grand buildings that have withstood the test of time, and witnessing the rise and fall of empires. The air itself hums with the chants and prayers that have echoed through these sacred spaces for millennia. Coastal Andhra is not just a place to visit; it’s a place to experience.

Here, you can immerse yourself in the vibrant traditions that continue to thrive. Witness the elaborate rituals, the colourful festivals, and the deep devotion etched on the faces of the people. Experience the energy of powerful deities at temples like Simhachalam, which is dedicated to Varaha Narasimha, and Srikalahasti, known for its Vayu Lingam. Each temple tells a story; each carving whispers a mantra.

Kosta Andhra is a journey for the soul. It’s an opportunity to connect with something greater than yourself, find peace in life’s rhythms, and explore your spirituality. Explore the sacred sites of coastal Andhra Pradesh and let their spiritual essence inspire your inner seeker.

.

Note: All photographs displayed above with watermarks are my exclusive property and copyright; their use is prohibited without explicit consent, in writing.

.

.